Higher-order thinking essentially means thinking that takes place in the higher-levels of the hierarchy of cognitive
processing. Bloom’s Taxonomy is the most widely accepted hierarchical arrangement of this sort in education and it
can be viewed as a continuum of thinking skills starting with knowledge-level thinking and moving eventually to evaluation-level
of thinking. A common example, used by Dr. Chuck Weiderhold of the application of the major categories in Bloom’s
Taxonomy, is show below, applying the taxonomy to the Pledge of Allegiance:
Knowledge statements ask the student
to recite the pledge. Example: “Say the pledge.”
Comprehension statements ask the student to explain
the meaning of words contained in the pledge. Example: “Explain what indivisible, liberty, and justice mean.”
Application statements ask the student to apply understandings. Example: “Create your own pledge to something
you believe in.”
Analysis statements ask the student to interpret word meanings in relation to context.
Example: “Discuss the meaning of ‘and to the Republic for which it stands’ in terms of its importance to
the pledge.”
Synthesis statements ask the student to apply concepts in a new setting. Example: “Write
a contract between yourself and a friend that includes an allegiance to a symbol that stands for something you both believe
in.”
Evaluation statements ask the student to judge the relative merits of the content and concepts contained
in the subject. Example: “Describe the purpose of the pledge and assess how well it achieves that purpose. Suggest
improvements.”
(Wiederhold, C. (1997). The Q-Matrix/Cooperative Learning & Higher-Level Thinking.
San Clemente, CA: Kagan Cooperative Learning.)
When we promote higher-order thinking then, we are simply promoting
thinking, along with the teaching methodologies that promote such thinking, that takes place at the higher levels of the
hierarchy just provided, notably application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
Critical/creative/constructive
thinking is closely related to higher-order thinking; they are actually inseparable. Critical/creative/constructive thinking
simply means thinking processes that progress upward in the given direction. First one critically analyzes the knowledge,
information, or situation. Then they creatively consider possible next-step options, and then finally, they construct a
new product, decision, direction, or value. The evaluation step listed above with the Pledge of Allegiance would require
this sort of thinking.
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Reading
Beyond the Lines
Another way to look at higher-order thinking is to look
at the reading process in typical terms and then extend the terms one step to reach higher-order thinking. That is, being
able to read, being literate, typically means having the ability to decode words and understand their meanings individually
and collectively. Being able to read and to comprehend the reading is generally considered thinking and involves “reading
the lines” and “reading between the lines.” Higher-order thinking or literacy though, is the next crucial
step, often not even thought of in the reading process, that being “reading beyond the lines.” This is so crucial
because it is in reading beyond the lines that reading the lines and reading between the lines have their real value.
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Instructional Elements for Fostering Higher-Order Thinking in the Classroom
(Synthesized from Teaching Children to Be Literate: A Reflective Approach, by Anthony and Ula Manzo, 1995)
1. Remember to ask for it; that is, for discovery, invention, and artistic/literary creation.
2. Great curiosity
and new ideas with enthusiasm; these can often lead to the most valuable “teachable moments.”
3. Expose
learners to new twists on old patterns and invite looking at old patterns from new angles.
4. Constructively critique
new ideas because they almost always require some fine-tuning.
5. Reset our expectations to the fact that there will
be many more “misses” than “hits” when reaching for workable new ideas.
6. Learn to invite
contrary, or opposing, positions; new possibilities are often discovered in this way and existing thoughts, patterns, and
beliefs can be tested and strengthened.
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Questions that Invite Higher-Order Thinking
(Synthesized from Teaching Children to Be Literate: A Reflective Approach, by Anthony and Ula Manzo, 1995)
· How is this study like another you/we have read? This question encourages students to make connections and see analogies.
· Does this story/information make you aware of any problems that need attention? This amounts to asking students
to see themselves as active participants in problem identification as well as problem solving.
· What does this mean
to you and how might it affect others? This pair of questions gives students a chance to express their own interests but
also to empathetically consider and understand the views of, and possible consequences to, others.
· Is there anything
wrong with this solution, and how else might this problem be solved? These questions are the heart of successful critical
analysis.
· What more needs to be known or done to understand or do this better? This is a pointed request for creative
problem solving that invites thinking “beyond the lines.”
· What is a contrary way of seeing this? Being
able to examine issues from multiple points of view helps the students to clarify their thoughts.
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Questioning for Quality Thinking at Each Level of Bloom’s
Taxonomy
Knowledge: Identification and recall of information
Who, what, when, where,
how?
Describe ___________________.
Comprehension: Organization and selection of facts and ideas
Retell
___________ in your own words.
What is the main idea of ___________________?
Application: Use of facts,
rules, principles
How is __________ and example of _______________?
How is __________ related to _________________?
Why is _________________ significant?
Analysis: Separation of the whole into component parts
What
are the parts or features of ________________?
Classify _______________ according to ________________.
Outline/diagram/web
____________________.
How does ______________ compare/contrast with __________________?
What evidence can you
list for _____________________?
Synthesis: Combination of ideas to form a new whole
What would you predict/infer
from __________________?
What ideas can you add to __________________?
How would you create/design a new __________________?
What might happen if you combine _______________ with ________________?
What solutions would you suggest for
__________________?
Evaluation: Development of opinions, judgments, or decisions
Do you agree with _________________?
What do you think about _______________?
What is the most important _____________?
Prioritize ________________.
How would you decide about ________________?
What criteria would you use to assess ______________________?
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Head-on Approaches to Teaching Higher-Order Thinking
(Synthesized from Teaching Children to Be Literate: A Reflective Approach, by Anthony
and Ula Manzo, 1995)
- “Thinking Thursdays”
- Consider setting aside a given
amount of time on a regular basis to try some of these direct approaches to teaching critical and creative thinking.
- Word Creation:
- Define the word “squallizmotex”
and explain how your definition fits the word.
- If dried grapes are called raisins,
and dried beef is called beef jerky, what would you call these items if they were dried: lemons, pineapple, watermelon,
chicken.
- Unusual Uses:
- Have students try to think of as many unusual uses
as they can for common objects such as bricks, used toys, old tennis balls, soda bottles, and 8-track cassette tapes.
- Circumstances and Consequences: What would happen if . . .
- school
was on weekends and not during the week?
- water stuck like glue?
- gravity took a day off?
- there were no colors?
- everyone
in the country could vote on every issue that is now decided by government representatives?
- Product Improvements:
- How could school desks be improved?
- How could living room furniture be improved to provide better storage and even exercise while watching
television?
- How can we better equip book-carrying bags to handle lunches and other
needs that you can think of?
- Systems
and Social Improvements:
- A sample question
that could lead into plenty of higher-level discussion and a good give-and-take of views and needs could be: “How
can schools be made more fun without hurting learning?”